Prevalence and comorbidities of Sjogren's syndrome patients in the Community of Madrid: A population-based cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the prevalence, sociodemographic characteristics and comorbidities of Sjogren's syndrome (SS) patients in the Community of Madrid. METHODS: A population-based cross-sectional cohort of SS patients was derived from the information system for rare diseases in the Community of Madrid (SIERMA) and confirmed by a physician. The prevalence per 10,000 inhabitants among people aged ≥18years in June 2015 was calculated. Sociodemographic data and accompanying disorders were recorded. Univariate and bivariate analyses were performed. RESULTS: A total of 4,778 SS patients were confirmed in SIERMA; 92.8% were female, with a mean age of 64.3 (standard deviation=15.4) years. A total of 3,116 (65.2%) patients were classified as primary SS (pSS), and 1,662 (34.8%) as secondary SS (sSS). The prevalence of SS among people aged ≥18 years was 8.4/10,000 (95%Confidence interval [CI]=8.2-8.7). The prevalence of pSS was 5.5/10,000 (95%CI=5.3-5.7), and that of sSS was 2.8/10,000 (95%CI=2.7-2.9), with rheumatoid arthritis (20.3%) and systemic lupus erythematosus (8.5%) being the most prevalent associated autoimmune diseases. The most common comorbidities were hypertension (40.8%), lipid disorders (32.7%), osteoarthritis (27.7%) and depression (21.1%). The most prescribed medications were nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (31.9%), topical ophthalmic therapies (31.2%) and corticosteroids (28.0%). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of SS in the Community of Madrid was similar to the overall prevalence worldwide observed in previous studies. SS was more frequent in women in their sixth decade. Two out of every three SS cases were pSS, while one-third were associated predominantly with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.

Influence of primary care professionals on early detection of breast cancer: different perception between family physicians and nursing professionals.

The aim of this study was to assess the level of self-perceived influence on early detection of breast cancer among nurses and family physicians (FP) working in primary care and to identify the factors associated with a lower perception in each group. In the Autonomous Community of Madrid, an online questionnaire on cancer prevention was sent to a random sample of primary care professionals (3586 FP and nurses). The data included sex, age, profession, years in primary care, specific postgraduate training, and opinions and attitudes toward cancer prevention. A descriptive analysis was carried out. Factors associated with a low/null self-perceived influence on early detection of breast cancer were analyzed separately for FP and nurses with multivariate logistic regression models. In all, 76.4% of the participants considered that their influence on the early detection of breast cancer was enough/high. FP attributed to themselves a higher influence than nurses (enough/high: 86.0 vs. 64.6%, P<0.01), and a lower perception was associated with a low/null perceived utility of their individual intervention [odds ratio (OR): 6.42, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.77-14.85]. Among nurses, also associated with this low/null perceived utility [adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 2.81, 95% CI 1.37-5.77] were the absence of postgraduate training in the matter (aOR: 2.56, 95% CI 1.05-6.25), and a low/null perception of feasibility of prevention programs in their centers (aOR: 1.93, 95% CI 1.25-2.98). Primary care professionals perceive their activity in the early detection of breast cancer as relevant, especially FP. To increase knowledge of the utility of individual interventions, specific training and improvement of the feasibility of these programs could enhance this perception.

Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in small areas of 33 Spanish cities.

BACKGROUND: In Spain, several ecological studies have analyzed trends in socioeconomic inequalities in mortality from all causes in urban areas over time. However, the results of these studies are quite heterogeneous finding, in general, that inequalities decreased, or remained stable. Therefore, the objectives of this study are: (1) to identify trends in geographical inequalities in all-cause mortality in the census tracts of 33 Spanish cities between the two periods 1996-1998 and 2005-2007; (2) to analyse trends in the relationship between these geographical inequalities and socioeconomic deprivation; and (3) to obtain an overall measure which summarises the relationship found in each one of the cities and to analyse its variation over time. METHODS: Ecological study of trends with 2 cross-sectional cuts, corresponding to two periods of analysis: 1996-1998 and 2005-2007. Units of analysis were census tracts of the 33 Spanish cities. A deprivation index calculated for each census tracts in all cities was included as a covariate. A Bayesian hierarchical model was used to estimate smoothed Standardized Mortality Ratios (sSMR) by each census tract and period. The geographical distribution of these sSMR was represented using maps of septiles. In addition, two different Bayesian hierarchical models were used to measure the association between all-cause mortality and the deprivation index in each city and period, and by sex: (1) including the association as a fixed effect for each city; (2) including the association as random effects. In both models the data spatial structure can be controlled within each city. The association in each city was measured using relative risks (RR) and their 95 % credible intervals (95 % CI). RESULTS: For most cities and in both sexes, mortality rates decline over time. For women, the mortality and deprivation patterns are similar in the first period, while in the second they are different for most cities. For men, RRs remain stable over time in 29 cities, in 3 diminish and in 1 increase. For women, in 30 cities, a non-significant change over time in RR is observed. However, in 4 cities RR diminishes. In overall terms, inequalities decrease (with a probability of 0.9) in both men (RR = 1.13, 95 % CI = 1.12-1.15 in the 1st period; RR = 1.11, 95 % CI = 1.09-1.13 in the 2nd period) and women (RR = 1.07, 95 % CI = 1.05-1.08 in the 1st period; RR = 1.04, 95 % CI = 1.02-1.06 in the 2nd period). CONCLUSIONS: In the future, it is important to conduct further trend studies, allowing to monitoring trends in socioeconomic inequalities in mortality and to identify (among other things) temporal factors that may influence these inequalities.

Socioeconomic inequalities in cause-specific mortality in 15 European cities.

BACKGROUND: Socioeconomic inequalities are increasingly recognised as an important public health issue, although their role in the leading causes of mortality in urban areas in Europe has not been fully evaluated. In this study, we used data from the INEQ-CITIES study to analyse inequalities in cause-specific mortality in 15 European cities at the beginning of the 21st century. METHODS: A cross-sectional ecological study was carried out to analyse 9 of the leading specific causes of death in small areas from 15 European cities. Using a hierarchical Bayesian spatial model, we estimated smoothed Standardized Mortality Ratios, relative risks and 95% credible intervals for cause-specific mortality in relation to a socioeconomic deprivation index, separately for men and women. RESULTS: We detected spatial socioeconomic inequalities for most causes of mortality studied, although these inequalities differed markedly between cities, being more pronounced in Northern and Central-Eastern Europe. In the majority of cities, most of these causes of death were positively associated with deprivation among men, with the exception of prostatic cancer. Among women, diabetes, ischaemic heart disease, chronic liver diseases and respiratory diseases were also positively associated with deprivation in most cities. Lung cancer mortality was positively associated with deprivation in Northern European cities and in Kosice, but this association was non-existent or even negative in Southern European cities. Finally, breast cancer risk was inversely associated with deprivation in three Southern European cities. CONCLUSIONS: The results confirm the existence of socioeconomic inequalities in many of the main causes of mortality, and reveal variations in their magnitude between different European cities.

Indicadores para monitorizar la evolución de la crisis económica y sus efectos en la salud y en las desigualdades en salud. Informe SESPAS 2014 / Indicators to monitor the evolution of the economic crisis and its effects on health and health inequalities. SESPAS report 2014

La crisis económica tiene efectos adversos sobre los determinantes de la salud y las desigualdades en salud. El objetivo de este artículo es presentar una propuesta de indicadores de salud y sus determinantes para vigilar los efectos de la crisis en España. A partir del marco conceptual de los determinantes de las desigualdades en salud propuesto por la Comisión para Reducir las Desigualdades Sociales en Salud en España se ha realizado la búsqueda de indicadores de los determinantes sociales, económicos y políticos (estructurales e intermedios), además de los indicadores de salud, teniendo en cuenta los ejes de desigualdad social (sexo, edad, posición socioeconómica y país de origen). Para ello se han obtenido indicadores que proceden en su mayoría de fuentes de datos oficiales publicados en la web. Los indicadores seleccionados se actualizan periódicamente, son comparables en el tiempo y en el territorio (entre comunidades autónomas y en algunos casos entre países de la Unión Europea), y están disponibles según diferentes grupos de edad, sexo, posición socioeconómica y país de origen. Sin embargo, muchos de estos indicadores no son lo suficientemente reactivos a los cambios rápidos, como sucede en el contexto de la crisis económica, por lo que es necesario monitorizarlos a lo largo del tiempo. Otra limitación es carecer de información que permita obtener los indicadores según los ejes de desigualdad. En conclusión, los indicadores propuestos permiten avanzar en la vigilancia de los efectos de la crisis económica en la salud y en las desigualdades en salud en nuestro país (AU)

The economic crisis has adverse effects on determinants of health and health inequalities. The aim of this article was to present a set of indicators of health and its determinants to monitor the effects of the crisis in Spain. On the basis of the conceptual framework proposed by the Commission for the Reduction of Social Health Inequalities in Spain, we searched for indicators of social, economic, and political (structural and intermediate) determinants of health, as well as for health indicators, bearing in mind the axes of social inequality (gender, age, socioeconomic status, and country of origin). The indicators were mainly obtained from official data sources published on the internet. The selected indicators are periodically updated and are comparable over time and among territories (among autonomous communities and in some cases among European Union countries), and are available for age groups, gender, socio-economic status, and country of origin. However, many of these indicators are not sufficiently reactive to rapid change, which occurs in the economic crisis, and consequently require monitoring over time. Another limitation is the lack of availability of indicators for the various axes of social inequality. In conclusion, the proposed indicators allow for progress in monitoring the effects of the economic crisis on health and health inequalities in Spain (AU)

[Indicators to monitor the evolution of the economic crisis and its effects on health and health inequalities. SESPAS report 2014]. / Indicadores para monitorizar la evolución de la crisis económica y sus efectos en la salud y en las desigualdades en salud. Informe SESPAS 2014.

The economic crisis has adverse effects on determinants of health and health inequalities. The aim of this article was to present a set of indicators of health and its determinants to monitor the effects of the crisis in Spain. On the basis of the conceptual framework proposed by the Commission for the Reduction of Social Health Inequalities in Spain, we searched for indicators of social, economic, and political (structural and intermediate) determinants of health, as well as for health indicators, bearing in mind the axes of social inequality (gender, age, socioeconomic status, and country of origin). The indicators were mainly obtained from official data sources published on the internet. The selected indicators are periodically updated and are comparable over time and among territories (among autonomous communities and in some cases among European Union countries), and are available for age groups, gender, socio-economic status, and country of origin. However, many of these indicators are not sufficiently reactive to rapid change, which occurs in the economic crisis, and consequently require monitoring over time. Another limitation is the lack of availability of indicators for the various axes of social inequality. In conclusion, the proposed indicators allow for progress in monitoring the effects of the economic crisis on health and health inequalities in Spain.

Health inequalities in European cities: perceptions and beliefs among local policymakers.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the knowledge and beliefs of public policymakers on social inequalities in health and policies to reduce them in cities from different parts of Europe during 2010 and 2011. DESIGN: Phenomenological qualitative study. SETTING: 13 European cities. PARTICIPANTS: 19 elected politicians and officers with a directive status from 13 European cities. MAIN OUTCOME: Policymaker's knowledge and beliefs. RESULTS: Three emerging discourses were identified among the interviewees, depending on the city of the interviewee. Health inequalities were perceived by most policymakers as differences in life-expectancy between population with economic, social and geographical differences. Reducing health inequalities was a priority for the majority of cities which use surveys as sources of information to analyse these. Bureaucracy, funding and population beliefs were the main barriers. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of the interviewed policymakers gave an account of interventions focusing on the immediate determinants and aimed at modifying lifestyles and behaviours in the more disadvantaged classes. More funding should be put towards academic research on effective universal policies, evaluation of their impact and training policymakers and officers on health inequalities in city governments.

Municipal interventions against inequalities in health: The view of their managers.

BACKGROUND: European city councils are increasingly developing interventions against health inequalities. There is little knowledge about how they are perceived. This study describes and analyses good practices and challenges for local interventions on inequalities in health through the narratives of European city managers. METHODS: A qualitative study was conducted. Each participating city (Amsterdam, Barcelona, Cluj-Napoca, Helsinki, Lisbon, London, Madrid, Rotterdam) selected interventions following these criteria: at least 6 months of implementation; an evaluation performed or foreseen; the reduction of health inequalities among their objectives, and only one of the interventions selected could be based on health care. Managers of these local interventions were interviewed following an outline. Eleven individual in-depth interviews describing nine local interventions were obtained. A thematic content analysis was performed. RESULTS: One or more local interventions against health inequalities were identified in each city. Most relied on quantitative data and were linked to national strategies. Few interventions addressed socio-economic determinants. Health care, employment and education were the main determinants addressed. With variable depth, evidence-base, participation and intersectorality were regular components of the interventions. Half of them targeted the city and half some deprived neighbourhoods. Few interventions had been evaluated. Scarcity of funding and sustainability of the projects were the main perceived barriers by the managers. CONCLUSIONS: City intervention managers were familiar with health inequalities and concepts as intersectorality, participation and evidence-based action, but others such as socioeconomic aims, gradient approach, evaluation and sustainability were not so widely applied. Managers' capacities and political leadership in governance for health should be reinforced.

Socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in 16 European cities.

AIMS: To explore inequalities in total mortality between small areas of 16 European cities for men and women, as well as to analyse the relationship between these geographical inequalities and their socioeconomic indicators. METHODS: A cross-sectional ecological design was used to analyse small areas in 16 European cities (26,229,104 inhabitants). Most cities had mortality data for a period between 2000 and 2008 and population size data for the same period. Socioeconomic indicators included an index of socioeconomic deprivation, unemployment, and educational level. We estimated standardised mortality ratios and controlled for their variability using Bayesian models. We estimated relative risk of mortality and excess number of deaths according to socioeconomic indicators. RESULTS: We observed a consistent pattern of inequality in mortality in almost all cities, with mortality increasing in parallel with socioeconomic deprivation. Socioeconomic inequalities in mortality were more pronounced for men than women, and relative inequalities were greater in Eastern and Northern European cities, and lower in some Western (men) and Southern (women) European cities. The pattern of excess number of deaths was slightly different, with greater inequality in some Western and Northern European cities and also in Budapest, and lower among women in Madrid and Barcelona. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we report a consistent pattern of socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in 16 European cities. Future studies should further explore specific causes of death, in order to determine whether the general pattern observed is consistent for each cause of death.

Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in ischemic heart disease mortality in small areas of nine Spanish cities from 1996 to 2007 using smoothed ANOVA.

The aim of this study was to analyze the evolution of socioeconomic inequalities in mortality due to ischemic heart diseases (IHD) in the census tracts of nine Spanish cities between the periods 1996-2001 and 2002-2007. Among women, there are socioeconomic inequalities in IHD mortality in the first period which tended to remain stable or even increase in the second period in most of the cities. Among men, in general, no socioeconomic inequalities have been detected for this cause in either of the periods. These results highlight the importance of intra-urban inequalities in mortality due to IHD and their evolution over time.

Socioeconomic inequalities in injury mortality in small areas of 15 European cities.

This study analysed socioeconomic inequalities in mortality due to injuries in small areas of 15 European cities, by sex, at the beginning of this century. A cross-sectional ecological study with units of analysis being small areas within 15 European cities was conducted. Relative risks of injury mortality associated with the socioeconomic deprivation index were estimated using hierarchical Bayesian model. The number of small areas varies from 17 in Bratislava to 2666 in Turin. The median population per small area varies by city (e.g. Turin had 274 inhabitants per area while Budapest had 76,970). Socioeconomic inequalities in all injury mortality are observed in the majority of cities and are more pronounced in men. In the cities of northern and western Europe, socioeconomic inequalities in injury mortality are found for most types of injuries. These inequalities are not significant in the majority of cities in southern Europe among women and in the majority of central eastern European cities for both sexes. The results confirm the existence of socioeconomic inequalities in injury related mortality and reveal variations in their magnitude between different European cities.

The association between in-patient death, utilization of hospital resources and availability of palliative home care for cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: The impact of palliative home care programs on in-patient admissions and deaths has not been appropriately established. AIM: The main objectives of this study have been to evaluate the frequency of in-patient hospital deaths and the use of hospital resources among cancer patients in two areas of the Madrid Region, as well as to assess differences between one area with and one without a palliative home care team (PHCT) in those variables. DESIGN AND SETTING: We conducted a population-based study comparing two adjacent metropolitan areas of approximately 200,000 inhabitants each in the Madrid Region, Spain, measuring in-patient deaths, emergency room admissions and in-patient days among cancer patients who died in 2005. Only one of the two areas had a fully established PHCT. RESULTS: 524/549 cancer patients (95%) had an identified place of death: 74% died in hospital, 17% at home, 6% in an in-patient hospice and 3% in a nursing home. The frequency of hospital deaths was significantly lower among patients of the PHCT area (61% versus 77%, p < 0.001), as well as the number of patients using emergency and in-patient services (68% versus 79%, p = 0.004, and 66 versus 76%, p = 0.012, respectively). After adjusting for other factors, the risk of hospital death was lower among patients older than 80 (OR, 95% CI, 0.3, 0.1-0.5), higher among patients with hematological malignancies (OR 6.1, 2.0-18.9) and lower among patients of the PHCT area (OR 0.4, 0.2-0.6). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that a PHCT is associated with reduced in-patient deaths and overall hospitalization over the last two months of life.

Socio-economic inequalities in mortality due to injuries in small areas of ten cities in Spain (MEDEA Project).

OBJECTIVES: To analyse socio-economic inequalities in mortality due to injuries among census tracts of ten Spanish cities by sex and age in the period 1996-2003. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional ecological study where the units of analysis are census tracts. The study population consisted of people residing in the cities during the period 1996-2003. For each census tract we obtained an index of socio-economic deprivation, and estimated standardized mortality ratios using hierarchical Bayesian models which take into account the spatial structure of the data. RESULTS: In the majority of the cities, the geographical pattern of total mortality from injuries is similar to that of the socio-economic deprivation index. There is an association between mortality due to injuries and the deprivation index in the majority of the cities which is more important among men and among those younger than 45 years. In these groups, traffic injuries and overdoses are the causes most often associated with deprivation in the cities. The percentage of excess mortality from injuries related to socio-economic deprivation is higher than 20% in the majority of the cities, the cause with the highest percentage being drug overdose. CONCLUSIONS: In most cities, there are socio-economic inequalities in mortality due to overdose and traffic injuries. In contrast, few cities have found association between suicide mortality and deprivation. Finally, no association was found between deprivation and deaths due to falls. Inequalities are higher in men and those under 45 years of age. These results highlight the importance of intra-urban inequalities in mortality due to injuries.

Cancer mortality inequalities in urban areas: a Bayesian small area analysis in Spanish cities.

BACKGROUND: Intra-urban inequalities in mortality have been infrequently analysed in European contexts. The aim of the present study was to analyse patterns of cancer mortality and their relationship with socioeconomic deprivation in small areas in 11 Spanish cities. METHODS: It is a cross-sectional ecological design using mortality data (years 1996-2003). Units of analysis were the census tracts. A deprivation index was calculated for each census tract. In order to control the variability in estimating the risk of dying we used Bayesian models. We present the RR of the census tract with the highest deprivation vs. the census tract with the lowest deprivation. RESULTS: In the case of men, socioeconomic inequalities are observed in total cancer mortality in all cities, except in Castellon, Cordoba and Vigo, while Barcelona (RR = 1.53 95%CI 1.42-1.67), Madrid (RR = 1.57 95%CI 1.49-1.65) and Seville (RR = 1.53 95%CI 1.36-1.74) present the greatest inequalities. In general Barcelona and Madrid, present inequalities for most types of cancer. Among women for total cancer mortality, inequalities have only been found in Barcelona and Zaragoza. The excess number of cancer deaths due to socioeconomic deprivation was 16,413 for men and 1,142 for women. CONCLUSION: This study has analysed inequalities in cancer mortality in small areas of cities in Spain, not only relating this mortality with socioeconomic deprivation, but also calculating the excess mortality which may be attributed to such deprivation. This knowledge is particularly useful to determine which geographical areas in each city need intersectorial policies in order to promote a healthy environment.

The usefulness of area-based socioeconomic measures to monitor social inequalities in health in Southern Europe.

BACKGROUND: The study objective was to investigate the association between health outcomes and several small-area-based socioeconomic measures and also with individual socioeconomic measures as a check on external validity. METHODS: Cross-sectional design based on the analysis of the Barcelona Health Interview Survey of 1992. A representative stratified sample of the non-institutionalised population resident in Barcelona city (Spain) was obtained. The present study refers to the 4171 respondents aged over 14. We studied perceived health status, presence of chronic conditions and smoking as health outcomes. Area socioeconomic measures (1991 census) were generated at census tract level and individual socioeconomic measures were educational level and social class obtained through the survey. RESULTS: With individual socioeconomic measures we observed that the lower the educational level or social class, the higher the probability of reporting a perceived health status of fair, poor or very poor and of presenting some chronic condition. With regard to smoking, among men this trend was similar [odds ratio (OR) = 1.5; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.2-1.9 in social classes IV-V with respect to social classes I-II], while among women it was reversed (OR = 0.7; 95% CI = 0.5-0.9). With the different area-based socioeconomic indicators differences were also observed in this sense, with the exception of smoking in women for which these indicators do not show any differences by socioeconomic level. CONCLUSIONS: With several census area-based socioeconomic measures similar effects on inequalities in health have been observed. In general, these inequalities were in the same sense as those obtained with individual-based measures. Small-area-based socioeconomic measures from the Spanish census could greatly enhance analysis of social inequalities in health, overcoming the absence of socioeconomic data in public health registries and in medical records.

Evaluación de un sistema de devolución de información en Salud Pública: Experiencia en el Área 2 de la Comunidad de Madrid / Evaluation of a system to feedback information on public health: the experience of Area 2 of the Community of Madrid

Fundamento: En enero del año 2000 el Servicio de Salud Pública del Área Sanitaria 2 de la Comunidad de Madrid, inició la edición semanal de una Hoja de Información en Salud Pública (HISP) dirigida a los profesionales de la salud del Área. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo estimar el conocimiento, aceptabilidad, utilidad y difusión de la HISP durante el año 2000. Métodos: Se realizó una encuesta por correo a una muestra de profesionales sanitarios del Área 2. Tras un análisis descriptivo se investigó, mediante análisis multivariante, qué factores explicaban que un profesional del Área conociera la HISP. Se utilizó el programa Epi Info 2000. Resultados: La tasa de respuesta fue del 79,7 por ciento. El apartado mejor valorado fue el de alertas en salud pública. Se encontró una asociación entre conocer la HISP y conocer el Boletín Epidemiológico de la Comunidad de Madrid (OR=9,3, IC 95 por ciento=2,9-29,5), y entre ser médico y recibir información de salud pública (OR=4,3, IC:1,5-12,6, p=0,005). Conclusiones: La HISP ha tenido buena aceptación entre los profesionales sanitarios del Área 2 que valoran más los contenidos relacionados con situaciones estresantes. Es necesario mejorar la difusión de la información de salud pública entre los profesionales de enfermería. (AU)

Background: In January 2000 the Public Health Service of Area 2, in the Region of Madrid, began to publish a weekly sheet on epidemiological and public health information (HISP) addressed to health professionals working in the Area. The aim of the present study was to estimate to how extend the "HISP" was known among health professionals of Area 2, and also to estimate the suitability and usefulness of its contents, during 2000. Methods: A postal survey was carried out among a random sample of professionals working in Area 2. A descriptive analysis of main variables was done, variables associated to the knowledge of the "HISP" were investigated. Epi Info 2000 program was used for the analysis. Results: The response rate was 79,7%. The best evaluated content was that related to epidemic outbreaks. An association between knowing the "HISP" and knowing the regional epidemiological bulletin (Boletín Epidemiológico de la Comunidad de Madrid) was found (OR=9,3, IC 95%=2,9-29,5), and also an association between knowing the "HISP" and being a physician (OR=4,3, IC: 1,5-12,6, p=0,005). Conclusions: The "HISP" has a good acceptance among health professionals of Area 2. They were more interested in contents related to stressful situations. It is necessary to improve the diffusion of information on public health among nursing professionals (AU)